China in Power Politics, 1928-1937: from Disunity to Coalition

1. In 1929, for the sake of bringing the whole country under effective KMT control, Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石) proposed to disband the armies of the former warlords. As could be expected, strong opposition arose among these militarists. Some of the ambitious ones even revolted against Chiang to contest for China's national leadership.
2. Chiang, however, succeeded in defeating the rebels with the following: exploitation of the rebels' lack of cooperation. bribes which tempted many rebels to change sides, and the call of patriotism, which served to dissolve the rebels' will to fight.
3. Despite this, the power and influence of the former warlords more or less remained. The Nanking KMT government's control over the country at large was limited just to the Yangtze Valley. Even as late as 1933, the KMT's party branches were established in less than 18% of the whole country's counties (hsien).
4. While provincially the former warlords were practically independent of KMT control, locally the gentry class continued to uphold local interests and resist KMT centralization.

1. The KMT party itself continued to be divided among its members, who disagreed with one another in political matters. There were many political factions, either regional or personal in nature.
2. After military unification of the country in 1928, the second stage of Sun Yat-sen's national program, that of political tutelage, was put into effect. The 5 branches of government were set up: the Executive, Legislative, Judicial, Examination, and Control departments. The sudden creation of so many government institutions led to the creation of many overlapping and unnecessary official posts. This complicated the government's structure, furthered its  inefficiency, and  encouraged disunity and disagree­ment among KMT members.

1. The KMT army was not always obedient and loyal. There were occasions when KMT officers and men went over to the side of the Communists.
2. Military revolts broke out at times. In 1932, for example, the KMT's 19th Route Army bravely resisted Japanese aggression in Shanghai but was disappointed at Chiang Kai-shek's passive attitude toward Japan. When Chiang transferred the army to Fukien, the discontented soldiers revolted and sided with the CCP (Chinese Communist Party). Yet because of distrust, the CCP failed to send troops to cooperate with them. In 1934, the Fukien Revolt, as it was called, was suppressed by Chiang.

Chiang had four important supporters: the army, the business-industrialists, the landlord-gentry and some KMT members.

1. Army - The army was the most important supporter of Chiang, since military power was still the most important factor of political success in China in the 1930s. Chiang trained his soldiers in such a way that they owed personal loyalty to him alone. Besides, unlike the civil politicians, the military men under Chiang's command enjoyed strong unity.
2. Business-industrialists - In 1927, Chiang married Soong Mei-ling, daughter of a powerful Shanghai banking family. Through the connections of his wife, Chiang was able to develop close contact with persons who had great financial power and influence in China, such as H. H. Kung a financier-official, and T. V. Soong, an outstanding banker. These business-industrialists supported Chiang, who in return carried out govern­ment measures favourable to business-industrial expansion.
3. Landlord-gentry - The landlord-gentry supported Chiang because the KMT's power centred in urban areas, which therefore left rural interests free from any KMT interference. Besides, both the business­industrialists and the landlord-gentry welcomed and regarded Chiang Kai-shek as the best defence against Communism.
4. KMT members - Chiang had supporters in the KNIT party itself too. This enabled him to balance the KMT factions against one another and remain in power at the top. In 1938, Chiang Kai-shek was elected as the KMT's Tsung­tsai (General Director), enjoying absolute power. His word was, in effect, the party's law.

1. Ever since his rivalry with Chiang Kai-shek in 1927, Wang Ching-wei (汪精衛) had been out of power. However, he soon organized another KMT government in Canton to challenge the one in Nanking under Chiang's control. Yet, because of the lack of social support and power, Wang was forced to come to an agreement with Chiang in 1931. From then until 1935, Wang worked under Chiang Kai-shek.
2. Hu Han-min (胡漢文), one of Sun Yat-sen's most trusted followers, worked with Chiang Kai-shek from 1927 until 1931. Hu was, however, basically opposed to Chiang's dictatorship. In 1931, he planned a seizure of power. The attempt failed, and Chiang had him arrested.

1. Political repressions - Assassinations, illegal arrests, summary executions, and censorship of books were ordered by Chiang Kai-shek. Besides, he created a Blue Shirt Society as a secret police force modelled on the Fascist example. With this weapon of terror, Chiang was able to murder or imprison those who opposed him.
2. Appointment of Chekiangese to KMT membership - Under Sun Yat-sen, the KMT party had most of its members from Kwangtung, Sun's native province. However, under Chiang Kai-shek, whose native place was Chekiang, the KMT absorbed many Chekiang people, who also held important posts in the government.
3. Re-introduction of Confucianism - In the early 1930s, a "Read-the-Classics" movement was put into practice. Army officers were required to .study the Four Books. A return to tradition was advocated. Personal morality and loyalty were emphasized. In particular, after the Communists had been driven out of South and Central China in late 1934, a New Life Movement was carried out to teach the people Confucian morality. As many as 96 detailed rules were issued to govern the people's behaviour. For example, the people were told to obey military discipline, to behave well, to be willing to make sacrifices for the KMT, and to tolerate suffering.

1. Under the direction of T. V. Soong and H. H. Kung, China's financial and banking systems were greatly improved. Also, efforts were made to reform China's confusing currency. The traditional tael was replaced by the silver dollar (yuan). An official KMT paper currency, the fa-pi, was introduced. Four national banks were set up to control and regulate the country's financial conditions. The results were, however, not always encouraging, because of both foreign economic imperialism and the KMT's incomplete political control over China at large.
   
2. Some industrial progress was made, especially in light industries such as the production of flour, matches and chemical materials. Foreign industrial equipment was also imported. As in the past, however, most of the developments were concentrated in cities.

1. More railways were built. From 1928 to 1937, the total national mileage increased over 60%. Paradoxically, however, it only made it easier for Japanese armies to advance to South China after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45).
2. A modern road system was developed. Air service also began, while postal and telegraph systems were further improved and expanded. An iron bridge was built in the Lower Yangtze. In Nanking, a ferry system was established.
3. While improvements in communication must have benefited China's economic development, they also helped the KMT government in extending poli­tical control over different Chinese territories.

1. Since the base of the KMT's power was in urban and coastal areas, not much attention was paid to the social problems of the countryside.
2. In 1930, the KMT government passed a law that limited farm rents to 37.5% of the crop yield at most. Also, sub-tenancy (i.e. a landlord renting land to a tenant, who in turn rents it to another person known, in this case, as a sub-tenant) was abolished. Measures as such were meant to benefit the peasants.
3. Yet, because many of the government officials owned much land themselves, and because the KMT depended on the landlords for support, these laws remained on the books without being seriously put into practice. Land rent continued to be as high as 50-70% of the crop yield.
4. After driving the Communists out of Central and South China, the KMT restored landlords, cancelled land reforms in formerly Communist held areas, and punished those peasants who had helped in Communist activities.

In dealing with the Western powers, the KMT government was more successful:

1. In 1927, the establishment of the national govern­ment in Nanking quickly received recognition from the foreign powers. (Even Japan, who did not like the KMT, recognized the Nanking government in 1929.)
2. Thereafter, for the first time since 1911, China could speak as a unified country in international meetings.
3. By 1933, after repeated negotiations with the foreign powers, tariff autonomy was restored to China (by which China had the independent right to decide on her level of tariffs). Previously the tariff was fixed at 5%; now it was raised to 7.5%. With more income, the KMT government could better modernize itself.
4. Some foreign concessions were also restored to China after the unification of 1928.

As we shall see, Chiang Kai-shek concentrated on the internal extermination of the Communists during the period. He therefore submitted to Japan's aggression until the formation of the Second KMT-CCP Coalition in 1936, when he was ready for national resistance.

Before 1928, China was territorially divided among the selfish warlords. After 1937, China was conquered by the Japanese. It was, therefore, during the 10 years between these dates that the KMT had a fair chance to rule and modernize the country. It was during these 10 years that the achievements and the shortcomings of the KMT became obvious. As it happened, the KMT failed in its mission. Chiang Kai-shek wasted 10 years, and lost China.

Of Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People (Nationalism, Democracy and Socialism), the Nanking government fulfilled little. National unification was in general achieved only as late as 1936. Really democratic practice had made little advance by 1937. And social reform was hopelessly inadequate throughout the period. As a military man, Chiang Kai-shek did not understand the importance and urgency of social reform in China. He was intent on maintaining the KMT's ruling position by means of military power, not by social revolution. The Communists' violent social revolution alarmed him more than anything else, and he was determined to destroy Communism in China at all costs. That is why, during the ten years from 1928 to 1937, he made alliances with the traditional forces of the old society - landlords, scholar-gentry, militarists, merchants and traders - to counter the Communist threat. Many of these corrupt conservatives obtained important government positions. In this way, the KMT was turned .into a reactionary party opposed to all social changes. In the eyes of the peasants, Chiang was just one of the warlords.

We must be fair, however. In putting blame on Chiang Kai-shek and the KMT for failing to reform Chinese society, we must at the same time consider the many problems and difficulties they faced:

1. Externally, there was Japanese aggression. Because of this, for example, Chiang's anti-Communist campaigns twice had to be called off.
2. Internally, there were the challenges from disloyal warlords, disobedient KMT members, and, most troublesome of all, the Communists. Political control of the country was incomplete, thus making reform impossible to be carried out in all China. The harmful social effects of the warlord period (1916-1928) were too many and too difficult to remove.
3. In such circumstances, it could be said that Chiang Kai­shek was forced to rule with military power alone, to the neglect of social and economic reforms. And in view of the unfavourable conditions, such reforms might still have failed even if the KMT had had both the intention and ability to carry them out.

Indeed, history did not treat the Nanking government leniently:

• Generally effective rule over the country at large was not possible until 1936, when KMT troops, chasing after the Communists, succeeded in establishing real control over former warlords in Central and South China. By then, however, the Japanese were about to invade China, which they did a year later, in 1937. The Nanking government, after retreating to Southwest China. found itself ruling again just a small part of Chinese territory. The KMT's chance of reforming all of China was forever lost.
• It was only during the journey of retreat to the south­west in 1937-8 that the KMT men came into close contact with the backward countryside and realized how serious China's rural social problems were. By then, however, the KMT's opportunity of curing China's social ills had gone. As seen, it was the Communists who took over the job.